= The Sequel Object Model

Sequel's dataset layer is mostly structured as an DSL, so it often obscures
what actual objects are being used.  For example, you don't usually create
Sequel objects by calling #new on the object's class (other than Sequel::Model
instances).  However, just as almost everything in ruby is an object, all 
the methods you call in Sequel deal with objects behind the scenes.

There are five main types of Sequel-specific objects that you deal with in
Sequel:

* Sequel::Database
* Sequel::Dataset
* Sequel::Model
* Standard Ruby Types
* Sequel::SQL::Expression (and subclasses)

== Sequel::Database

Sequel::Database is the main Sequel object that you deal with.  It's usually
created by the Sequel.connect method:

  DB = Sequel.connect('postgres://host/database')

A Sequel::Database object represents the database you are connecting to.
Sequel::Database handles things like Sequel::Dataset creation,

  dataset = DB[:table]

schema modification,

  DB.create_table(:table) do
    primary_key :id
    String :name
  end

and transactions:

  DB.transaction do
    DB[:table].insert(:column=>value)
  end

Sequel::Database#literal can be used to take any object that Sequel handles
and literalize the object to an SQL string fragment:

  DB.literal(DB[:table]) # (SELECT * FROM "table")

== Sequel::Dataset

Sequel::Dataset objects represent SQL queries, or more generally, they represent
abstract collections of rows in the database.  They are usually created from
a Sequel::Database object:

  dataset = DB[:table]         # SELECT * FROM "table"
  dataset = DB.from(table)     # SELECT * FROM "table"
  dataset = DB.select(:column) # SELECT "column"

Most Sequel::Dataset methods return modified copies of the receiver, and the
general way to build queries in Sequel is via a method chain:

  dataset = DB[:test].
              select(:column1, :column2).
              where(:column3 => 4).
              order(:column5)

Such a method chain is a more direct way of doing:

  dataset = DB[:test]
  dataset = dataset.select(:column1, :column2)
  dataset = dataset.where(:column3 => 4)
  dataset = dataset.order(:column5)

When you are ready to execute your query, you call one of the Sequel::Dataset
action methods.  For returning rows, you can do:

  dataset.first
  dataset.all
  dataset.each{|row| row}

For inserting, updating, or deleting rows, you can do:

  dataset.insert(:column=>value)
  dataset.update(:column=>value)
  dataset.delete

All datasets are related to their database object, which you can access via
the Sequel::Dataset#db method:

  dataset.db # => DB

== Sequel::Model

Sequel::Model objects are wrappers around a particular Sequel::Dataset object that
add custom behavior, both custom behavior for the entire set of rows in the dataset
(the model's class methods), custom behavior for a subset of rows in the dataset
(the model's dataset methods), and custom behavior for single rows in the dataset
(the model's instance methods).

Unlike most other Sequel objects, Sequel::Model classes and instances are
generally created by the user using standard ruby syntax:

  class Album < Sequel::Model
  end
  album = Album.new

All model classes are related to their Sequel::Dataset object, which you
can access via the Sequel::Model.dataset method:

  Album.dataset # SELECT * FROM "albums"

Additionally, all model classes are related to their dataset's Sequel::Database
object, which you can access via the Sequel::Model.db method:

  Album.db # => DB

== Standard Ruby Types

Where possible, Sequel uses ruby's standard types to represent SQL concepts.
In the examples here, the text to the right side of the # sign is the output
if you pass the left side to Sequel::Database#literal.

=== Symbol

For example, ruby symbols represent SQL identifiers (tables, columns, schemas):

  :table  # "table"
  :column # "column"

However, they can also represent qualified identifiers by including a double
underscore inside a symbol:

  :table__column # "table"."column"

They can also represent an aliased identifier by including a triple underscore
inside a symbol:

  :column___alias # "column" AS "alias"

You can combine both qualification and aliasing by using a double underscore
and a triple underscore:

  :table__column___alias # "table"."column" AS "alias"

=== Integer, Float, BigDecimal, String, Date, Time, DateTime

Ruby's Integer, Float, BigDecimal, String, Date, Time, and DateTime classes
represent similar types in SQL:

  1                     # 1
  1.0                   # 1.0
  BigDecimal.new('1.0') # 1.0
  "string"              # 'string'
  Date.new(2012, 5, 6)  # '2012-05-06'
  Time.now              # '2012-05-06 10:20:30'
  DateTime.now          # '2012-05-06 10:20:30'

=== Hash

Sequel generally uses hash objects to represent equality:

  {:column => 1} # ("column" = 1)

However, if you use in array as the hash value, it will usually be used to represent inclusion:

  {:column => [1, 2, 3]} # ("column" IN (1, 2, 3))

You can also use a Sequel::Dataset instance as the hash value, which will be used to
represent inclusion in the subselect:

  {:column => DB[:table].select(:column)} # ("column" IN (SELECT "column" FROM "table"))

If you pass true, false, or nil as the hash value, it will be used to represent identity:

  {:column => nil} # ("column" IS NULL)

If you pass a Range object, it will be used as the bounds for a greater than and less than
operation:

  {:column => 1..2} # (("column" >= 1) AND ("column" <= 2))
  {:column => 1...3} # (("column" >= 1) AND ("column" < 3))

If you pass a Regexp object as the value, it will be used as a regular expression
operation (only supported on PostgreSQL and MySQL currently):

  {:column => /a.*b/} # ("column" ~ 'a.*b')

=== Array

Sequel generally treats arrays as an SQL value list:

  [1, 2, 3] # (1, 2, 3)

However, if all members of the array are arrays with two members, then the array is treated like
a hash:

   [[:column, 1]] # ("column" = 1)

The advantage of using an array over a hash for such a case is that a hash cannot include
multiple objects with the same key, while the array can.

== Sequel::SQL::Expression (and subclasses)

If Sequel needs to represent an SQL concept that does not map directly to an existing
ruby class, it will generally use a Sequel::SQL::Expression subclass to represent that
concept.

Some of the examples below show examples that require the {core_extensions extension}[rdoc-ref:doc/core_extensions.rdoc].

=== Sequel::LiteralString

Sequel::LiteralString is not actually a Sequel::SQL::Expression subclass.  It is
a subclass of String, but it is treated specially by Sequel, in that it is treated
as literal SQL code, instead of as an SQL string that needs to be escaped:

  Sequel::LiteralString.new("co'de") # co'de

The following shortcuts exist for creating Sequel::LiteralString objects:

  Sequel.lit("co'de")
  "co'de".lit # core_extensions extension

=== Sequel::SQL::Blob

Sequel::SQL::Blob is also a String subclass, but it is treated as an SQL blob
instead of an SQL string, as SQL blobs often have different literalization rules
than SQL strings do:

  Sequel::SQL::Blob.new("blob")

The following shortcuts exist for creating Sequel::SQL::Blob objects:

  Sequel.blob("blob")
  "blob".to_sequel_blob  # core_extensions extension

=== Sequel::SQLTime

Sequel::SQLTime is a Time subclass.  However, it is treated specially by Sequel
in that only the time component is literalized, not the date part.  This type
is used to represent SQL time types, which do not contain date information.

  Sequel::SQLTime.create(10, 20, 30) # "10:20:30"

=== Sequel::SQL::ValueList

Sequel::SQL::ValueList objects always represent SQL value lists.  Most ruby arrays
represent value lists in SQL, except that arrays of two-element arrays are treated
similar to hashes.  Such arrays can be wrapped in this class to ensure they are
treated as value lists.  This is important when doing a composite key IN lookup,
which some databases support.  Sequel::SQL::ValueList is an ::Array subclass with
no additional behavior, so it can be instantiated like a normal array:

  Sequel::SQL::ValueList.new([[1, 2], [3, 4]]) # ((1, 2), (3, 4))

In old versions of Sequel, these objects often needed to be created manually,
but in newer versions of Sequel, they are created automatically in most cases
where they are required.

The following shortcuts exist for creating Sequel::SQL::ValueList objects:

  Sequel.value_list([[1, 2], [3, 4]])
  [[1, 2], [3, 4]].sql_value_list # core_extensions extension

=== Sequel::SQL::Identifier

Sequel::SQL::Identifier objects represent single identifiers.  The main reason for
their existence is that they are not checked for double or triple underscores, so no
automatic qualification or aliasing happens for them:

  Sequel::SQL::Identifier.new(:col__umn) # "col__umn"

The following shortcuts exist for creating Sequel::SQL::Identifier objects:

  Sequel.expr(:column)
  Sequel.identifier(:col__umn)
  :col__umn.identifier # core_extensions extension

=== Sequel::SQL::QualifiedIdentifier

Sequel::SQL::QualifiedIdentifier objects represent qualified identifiers:

  Sequel::SQL::QualifiedIdentifier.new(:table, :column) # "table"."column"

The following shortcuts exist for creating Sequel::SQL::QualifiedIdentifier objects:

  Sequel.expr(:table__column)
  Sequel.qualify(:table, :column)
  :column.qualify(:table) # core_extensions extension

=== Sequel::SQL::AliasedExpression

Sequel::SQL::AliasedExpression objects represent aliased expressions in SQL.  The alias
is treated as an identifier, but the expression can be an arbitrary Sequel expression:

  Sequel::SQL::AliasedExpression.new(:column, :alias)
  # "column" AS "alias"

  Sequel::SQL::AliasedExpression.new(:table, :alias, [:column_alias1, :column_alias2])
  # "table" AS "alias"("column_alias1", "column_alias2")

The following shortcuts exist for creating Sequel::SQL::AliasedExpression objects:

  Sequel.expr(:column___alias)
  Sequel.as(:column, :alias)
  Sequel.as(:column, :alias, [:column_alias1, :column_alias2])
  :column.as(:alias) # core_extensions extension
  
=== Sequel::SQL::ComplexExpression

Sequel::SQL::ComplexExpression objects mostly represent SQL operations with arguments.
There are separate subclasses for representing boolean operations such as AND and OR
(Sequel::SQL::BooleanExpression), mathematical operations such as + and -
(Sequel::SQL::NumericExpression), and string operations such as || and LIKE
(Sequel::SQL::StringExpression).

  Sequel::SQL::BooleanExpression.new(:OR, :col1, :col2) # ("col1" OR "col2")
  Sequel::SQL::NumericExpression.new(:+, :column, 2) # ("column" + 2)
  Sequel::SQL::StringExpression.new(:"||", :column, "b") # ("column" || 'b')

There are many shortcuts for creating Sequel::SQL::ComplexExpression objects:

  Sequel.or(:col1, :col2)
  :col1 | :col2 # core_extensions extension

  Sequel.+(:column, 2)
  :column + 2 # core_extensions extension

  Sequel.join([:column, 'b'])
  :column + 'b' # core_extensions extension

=== Sequel::SQL::CaseExpression

Sequel::SQL::CaseExpression objects represent SQL CASE expressions, which represent
branches in the database, similar to ruby case expressions.  Like ruby's case
expressions, these case expressions can have a implicit value you are comparing
against:

  Sequel::SQL::CaseExpression.new({2=>1}, 0, :a) # CASE "a" WHEN 2 THEN 1 ELSE 0 END

Or they can treat each condition separately:
 
  Sequel::SQL::CaseExpression.new({{:a=>2}=>1}, 0) # CASE WHEN ("a" = 2) THEN 1 ELSE 0 END

In addition to providing a hash, you can also provide an array of two-element arrays:

  Sequel::SQL::CaseExpression.new([[2, 1]], 0, :a) # CASE "a" WHEN 2 THEN 1 ELSE 0 END

The following shortcuts exist for creating Sequel::SQL::CaseExpression objects:

  Sequel.case({2=>1}, 0, :a)
  Sequel.case({{:a=>2}=>1}, 0)

  {2=>1}.case(0, :a) # core_extensions extension
  {{:a=>2}=>1}.case(0) # core_extensions extension

=== Sequel::SQL::Cast

Sequel::SQL::Cast objects represent CAST expressions in SQL, which does explicit
typecasting in the database.  With Sequel, you provide the expression to typecast
as well as the type to cast to.  The type can either be a generic type, given as
a ruby class:

  Sequel::SQL::Cast.new(:a, String) # (CAST "a" AS text)

or a specific type, given as a symbol or string:

  Sequel::SQL::Cast.new(:a, :int4) # (CAST "a" AS int4)

The following shortcuts exist for creating Sequel::SQL::Cast objects:

  Sequel.cast(:a, String)
  Sequel.cast(:a, :int4)

  :a.cast(String) # core_extensions extension
  :a.cast(:int4) # core_extensions extension

=== Sequel::SQL::ColumnAll

Sequel::SQL::ColumnAll objects represent the selection of all columns from a
table.  They are pretty much only used as arguments to one of the Dataset select
methods, and are not used much anymore since Dataset#select_all was expanded to
take arguments.  Still, it's possible they are still useful in some code:

  Sequel::SQL::ColumnAll.new(:table) # "table".*

The following shortcut exists for creating Sequel::SQL::ColumnAll objects:

  Sequel.expr(:table).*
  :table.* # core_extensions extension

=== Sequel::SQL::Constant

Sequel::SQL::Constant objects represent constants or pseudo-constants in SQL,
such as TRUE, NULL, and CURRENT_TIMESTAMP.  These are not designed to be created
or used by the end user, but some existing values are predefined under the
Sequel namespace:

  Sequel::CURRENT_TIMESTAMP # CURRENT_TIMESTAMP

These objects are usually used as values in queries:

  DB[:table].insert(:time=>Sequel::CURRENT_TIMESTAMP)

=== Sequel::SQL::DelayedEvaluation

Sequel::SQL::DelayedEvaluation objects represent an evaluation that is delayed
until query literalization.

  Sequel::SQL::DelayedEvaluation.new(proc{some_model.updated_at})

The following shortcut exists for creating Sequel::SQL::DelayedEvaluation
objects:

  Sequel.delay{some_model.updated_at}

Note how Sequel.delay requires a block, while Sequel::SQL::DelayedEvaluation.new
accepts a generic callable object.

Let's say you wanted a dataset for the number of objects greater than some
attribute of another object:

  ds = DB[:table].where{updated_at > some_model.updated_at}

The problem with the above query is that it evaluates "some_model.updated_at"
statically, so if you change some_model.updated_at later, it won't affect this
dataset.  You can use Sequel.delay to fix this:

  ds = DB[:table].where{updated_at > Sequel.delay{some_model.updated_at}}

This will evaluate "some_model.updated_at" every time you literalize the
dataset (usually every time it is executed).

=== Sequel::SQL::Function

Sequel::SQL::Function objects represents database function calls, which take a function
name and any arguments:

  Sequel::SQL::Function.new(:func, :a, 2) # func("a", 2)

The following shortcuts exist for creating Sequel::SQL::Function objects:

  Sequel.function(:func, :a, 2)
  :func.sql_function(:a, 2) # core_extensions extension

=== Sequel::SQL::JoinClause

Sequel::SQL::JoinClause objects represent SQL JOIN clauses.  They are usually
not created manually, as the Dataset join methods create them automatically.

=== Sequel::SQL::PlaceholderLiteralString

Sequel::SQL::PlaceholderLiteralString objects represent a literal SQL string
with placeholders for variables.  There are three types of these objects.
The first type uses question marks with multiple placeholder value objects:

  Sequel::SQL::PlaceholderLiteralString.new('? = ?', [:a, 1]) # "a" = 1

The second uses named placeholders with colons and a hash of placeholder
value objects:

  Sequel::SQL::PlaceholderLiteralString.new(':b = :v', [{:b=>:a, :v=>1}]) # "a" = 1

The third uses an array instead of a string, with multiple placeholder
objects, each one going in between the members of the array:

  Sequel::SQL::PlaceholderLiteralString.new(['', ' = '], [:a, 1]) # "a" = 1

For any of these three forms, you can also include a third argument for whether
to include parentheses around the string:

  Sequel::SQL::PlaceholderLiteralString.new('? = ?', [:a, 1], true) # ("a" = 1)

The following shortcuts exist for creating Sequel::SQL::PlaceholderLiteralString
objects:

  Sequel.lit('? = ?', :a, 1)
  Sequel.lit(':b = :v', :b=>:a, :v=>1)
  Sequel.lit(['', ' = '], :a, 1)

  '? = ?'.lit(:a, 1) # core_extensions extension
  ':b = :v'.lit(:b=>:a, :v=>1) # core_extensions extension

=== Sequel::SQL::OrderedExpression

Sequel::SQL::OrderedExpression objects represent ascending or descending sorts,
used by the Dataset order methods.  They take an expression, and whether to sort
it ascending or descending:

  Sequel::SQL::OrderedExpression.new(:a) # "a" DESC
  Sequel::SQL::OrderedExpression.new(:a, false) # "a" ASC

Additionally, they take an options hash, which can be used to specify how nulls
can be sorted:

  Sequel::SQL::OrderedExpression.new(:a, true, :nulls=>:first) # "a" DESC NULLS FIRST
  Sequel::SQL::OrderedExpression.new(:a, false, :nulls=>:last) # "a" ASC NULLS LAST

The following shortcuts exist for creating Sequel::SQL::OrderedExpression objects:

  Sequel.asc(:a)
  Sequel.desc(:a)
  Sequel.asc(:a, :nulls=>:first)
  Sequel.desc(:a, :nulls=>:last)

  :a.asc # core_extensions extension
  :a.desc # core_extensions extension
  :a.asc(:nulls=>:first) # core_extensions extension
  :a.desc(:nulls=>:last) # core_extensions extension

=== Sequel::SQL::Subscript

Sequel::SQL::Subscript objects represent SQL database array access.  They take an
expression and an array of indexes (or a range for an SQL array slice):

  Sequel::SQL::Subscript.new(:a, [1]) # "a"[1]
  Sequel::SQL::Subscript.new(:a, [1, 2]) # "a"[1, 2]
  Sequel::SQL::Subscript.new(:a, [1..2]) # "a"[1:2]

The following shortcuts exist for creating Sequel::SQL::Subscript objects:

  Sequel.subscript(:a, 1)
  Sequel.subscript(:a, 1, 2)
  Sequel.subscript(:a, 1..2)

  :a.sql_subscript(1) # core_extensions extension
  :a.sql_subscript(1, 2) # core_extensions extension
  :a.sql_subscript(1..2) # core_extensions extension
  
=== Sequel::SQL::VirtualRow

Sequel::SQL::VirtualRow is a BasicObject subclass that is the backbone behind the
block expression support:

  DB[:table].where{a < 1}

In the above code, the block is instance-evaled inside a VirtualRow instance.

These objects are usually not instantiated manually.  See the
{Virtual Row Guide}[rdoc-ref:doc/virtual_rows.rdoc] for details.

=== Sequel::SQL::Window

Sequel::SQL::Window objects represent the windows used by Sequel::SQL::Function.
They use a hash-based API, supporting the :frame, :order, :partition, and :window
options:

  Sequel::SQL::Window.new(:order=>:a) # (ORDER BY "a")
  Sequel::SQL::Window.new(:partition=>:a) # (PARTITION BY "a")

  Sequel::SQL::Window.new(:partition=>:a, :frame=>:all)
  # (PARTITION BY "a" ROWS BETWEEN UNBOUNDED PRECEDING AND UNBOUNDED FOLLOWING)

=== Sequel::SQL::Wrapper

Sequel::SQL::Wrapper objects wrap arbitrary objects so that they can be used
in Sequel expressions:

  o = Object.new
  def o.sql_literal(ds) "foo" end
  Sequel::SQL::Wrapper.new(o) # foo

The advantage of wrapping the object is that you can the call Sequel methods
on the wrapper that would not be defined on the object itself:

  Sequel::SQL::Wrapper.new(o) + 1 # (foo + 1)

You can use the Sequel.expr method to wrap any object:

  Sequel.expr(o)

However, note that that does not necessarily return a Sequel::SQL::Wrapper
object, it may return a different class of object, such as a
Sequel::SQL::ComplexExpression subclass object.
  
